Even in 2022, fewer than half of working-age women from low- and middle-income countries (LMICs) participated in the workforce, with persistently rigid historic, economic, and social structures and norms contributing to stagnant female labor force participation rates. As LMICs move up the economic growth trajectory, there will be a shift from vulnerable jobs to more stable wage work, which is generally associated with higher income, job security, and improved conditions. However, the transition for women to wage work outside the home is impeded by societal norms restricting women’s mobility, digital access, and access to skills training. Addressing these constraints can facilitate greater female labor supply.

How do mobility restrictions, digital constraints, and inadequate skills training hinder female labor force participation in wage employment in LMICs? What interventions can help mitigate these barriers?

This systematic literature review synthesizes evidence from 50 high-quality experimental and quasi-experimental studies across 30 LMICs on the impact of interventions addressing:

1. Mobility constraints (12 studies) – rural road, public transport access

2. Digital constraints (13 studies) – ICT access, adoption by firms

3. Skills constraints (25 studies) – vocational/technical training programs

Mobility constraints

• Women’s transition from agriculture to non-farm wage work

• Women’s self-employment from home-based work

• Female workforce participation rates

Digital constraints

• Employment and wages for educated/skilled women

• Gender gaps in employment and wages

• Representation of women in formal workforce

Skills constraints

• Employment rates (overall and formal jobs)

• Wage levels

• Alignment of training with private sector demand

Mobility:

• Improved rural road access boosted non-farm wage work for women in less restrictive gender norm settings

• Urban public transport enhanced female labor force participation

Digital:

• ICT benefited employment/wages for educated/skilled women

• Enabled more female-oriented occupations, reducing gender gaps

Skills:

• Vocational training had higher returns for women’s employment and wages

• Combined technical + soft skills training most effective

• Impacts sustained in formal jobs for some groups over longer-term

The evidence highlights opportunities to promote female labor force participation by dismantling mobility, digital, and skills barriers in LMICs through targeted interventions.